Traditionally, there are four recognized categories of instruments:

a. Tanta or chordophones - instruments that generate sound by stimulating gut or metal strings, such as Vīṇā, Sītār, Piano, etc.

b. Śuṣira or aerophones - instruments that produce sound through the air, such as flutes, conch shells, harmoniums, etc.

c. Ānaddha or membranophones - percussion instruments with a membrane, such as Tablā, Dhāka, etc.

d. Ghana or idiophones - examples include Gong, Ghantā, Jalataraṅga, Kharatāla, Cimbali, etc.

The subsequent list comprises instruments exclusive to the tradition of Indian classical music, alongside those from Western musical culture that have found usage in India:

Ananda Lahari

A folk instrument, resembling a small-sized Dhola or oblong gourd with one side covered by a skin and the other open. A gut string, fastened with wooden pegs, extends from the center of the skin. Held under the left arm, the player uses the left hand to control the wooden part tightening the gut string. The string is struck with a plectrum, often made of coconut or wood, held by the index finger and thumb of the right hand. This action alters the string's frequency, with tension modifications made by the left hand. The instrument, primarily rhythmic, exhibits tonic variations. It is employed as an accompaniment for songs by Bāula practitioners, certain traveling musicians, and renunciant monks.

Bagpipe

Although its iconographic origins are associated with medieval England, this instrument predates common assumptions about its age. Consisting of three pipes tuned to the tonic, upper octave, and major third, serving as a drone for the melody produced on another pipe with a series of holes, akin to a flute, known as a cannello. Introduced to India during the era of English colonialism, despite its robust sound, it establishes its unique presence within orchestral contexts and proves particularly well-suited to the requirements of Indian music.

Bansuri

Bāṁŝī, Bāṁśī, or alternatively Bansuri, widely prevalent throughout India, this flute is typically crafted from a section of bamboo cane, although contemporary versions can be found in wood, brass, and terracotta. There are three variations of the Bansuri :

(i) Classical Bansuri - the most common form, featuring a blowing hole closely resembling that of a whistle, and considered one of the simplest in terms of sound emission.

(ii) Āḍ Bansuri or Muralī - played in a manner reminiscent of a bottle.

(iii) Veṇu - closely resembling the classical variety but held diagonally, requiring a more intricate blowing technique for sound emission. Presently, it is also known as Ṭipārā.

Bamsya

Bāṁyā is a clay or copper percussion that is played with the left hand together with the Tablā. Bāṁyā and Tablā form an inseparable pair and today it is the most used percussion for almost all Indian classical music, except for Dhrupada and Ālāpa. The skins have a mixture of rice flour and iron powder called Gāba or Sihay, off-centre with respect to the circumference and are pulled through leather or cotton laces necessary to tune the instrument.

Banjo

Banjo is a lute similar to the guitar, although the sound box is circular or teardrop shaped, has a wooden back, a metal ring on the side that holds the skin which acts as a soundboard and supports the bridge. Although it is rare to find it today in India, it was very successful in Calcutta around 1940.

Bassoon

Bassoon is an aerophone belonging to the oboe class, it has a fairly low sound.

Behalā or violin

In Indian tradition, for example, the Pinākī Vīṇā invented by Rāvaṇa, mythological king of Ceylon, is recognized as the archetype of this instrument. Some call it Bāhulin. However, there is a broad consensus in wanting to give the paternity of this instrument to India, even if the object as we know it today found its maximum expression and technological functionality in eighteenth-century Italy thanks to some important innovations. To date, in European classical music orchestras it is one of the main instruments to which solo parts are often dedicated. If traditionally the strings were made of gut or silk, today, as in most instruments, these are made of metal. The technique and positioning of the instrument in India has various differences compared to the West, where the tuning methods are also very different from each other.

Bherī

Also known as Mahā Nākāḍā, is typically crafted from a telescopic brass tube. Its sound emission technique mirrors that of a horn or conch. Originally employed as a military instrument, today it is primarily utilized in ceremonial contexts.

Horn

This European instrument, resembling a trumpet but without pistons, valves, or holes, maintains a shorter and solid structure. With a sound emission technique akin to the conch, instrumentalists can produce five to six notes, depending on their skill. This instrument is commonly used in military settings worldwide.

Clarinet

A variation of the European aerophone, typically featuring an ebony body with metal tuners. Distinguished by a single reed mouthpiece (in contrast to the oboe's double reed), this instrument of European origin is frequently employed in Indian orchestral performances and also serves in Indian classical music as either an accompaniment or soloist.

Damama

Resembling the terracotta Ṭikārā but with a larger circumference, the Damāmā was historically employed on battlefields. In contemporary times, it is almost exclusively featured in ceremonial settings.

Damaru

Damaru or Dugdugi is a folk instrument, also known as the instrument of Śiva, takes the shape of an hourglass with two faces covered by skins. With a rotary motion, these skins are struck by two pieces of wood connected by strings at the instrument's center, allowing for the expression of various rhythmic virtuosities. However, this instrument is closely associated with the traditions of snake charmers, magicians, and wandering monks.

Daf

A frame drum closely resembling Arab-Jewish versions, this instrument is linked to the nomadic tradition of India and continues to be integrated into contemporary orchestral settings. Considered one of the oldest instruments in human history, it finds mention in Dhrupada songs.

Dhaka

Among the oldest and most substantial instruments in the Hindustani tradition, the Dhaka is typically crafted from wood and covered with leather on both sides. Played on one side with sticks, it is often adorned with bird feathers. Always accompanied by another instrument called Kāṁsara, it is indispensable in numerous religious ceremonies and functions.

Dhola

Resembling the Ḍhāka, this instrument features skin on both sides, with one skin's central part covered by a mixture of rice flour and iron powder known as Gāba or Kharali, defining the timbre of all percussion instruments using this construction technique. Played with a stick held in the right hand and the free palm of the left hand, it is essential in various religious ceremonies and functions.

Dholak

Similar to the Ḍhola but smaller in size, the Ḍholaka has cotton tuning strings that zigzag along the entire side of the instrument, pulled through iron rings. Like the Ḍhola, it features a skin with Gāba. Played without sticks, using the palms of the hands, it is indispensable for accompanying theatrical performances in squares or outdoor venues.

Dilruba

A more expansive and intricate variant of the Esrāja, the Dilrubā boasts a lower register and is primarily employed for the Ālāpa. Played with a bow, it features a wooden body with a soundboard that holds the leather bridge.

Dotara

The name itself, meaning 'two strings,' aptly describes this instrument. There are various types of Dotara:

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a. Ṭhanṭhanā: Consists of a bamboo handle affixed to a gourd. The soundboard, made of leather, supports a bridge over which two strings, tuned to the same frequency, pass. Depending on regional variations, these strings may be either placed side by side or superimposed. Common in the Tanjore and Madras areas.

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b. Svarāja or Sursaṁgraha: Comparable to the Sarod but lacking a metal keyboard, it is better categorized in the Rabāb group. With a single wooden body, and in most cases, two strings, it is a folk instrument utilized in Bengal's villages, serving as both accompaniment for singing and as a solo instrument.

Dundubhi

Dundubhi is a membranophone and according to some interpretations, this instrument corresponds to the one mentioned in classical texts as Nakada.

Ektar

Comprising a bamboo handle fixed on a gourd, the Ektar has a leather soundboard supporting a bridge over which a string passes, stimulated by a plectrum called Mizrab. The name, once again, reflects the nature of this single-stringed instrument. Referred to in the Śāstras as Ekatantrī Vīṇā, it is considered the progenitor of all other Vīṇās in the Hindustani tradition. Primarily a rhythmic instrument, it serves as an accompaniment for religious hymns sung by the Bāula, Bairāgī, and wandering monks.

Esraj

This instrument is a fusion of the Sitār's neck and the soundbox of the Sārindā. Instead of a pumpkin, a hollow piece of wood is used, with a fixed skin acting as a soundboard. The bridge, where all the strings slide, is placed on this soundboard. All Sitār techniques, except for the Mīḍ, can be applied on the left hand. Primarily used as an accompaniment instrument, it is also featured in solo contexts, following the same principles as the Sitār.

Zufolo

A brass or wooden wind instrument of European origin, resembling the flutes in the Hindustani tradition. It features two mouthpieces on the back side, is held vertically, and has a relatively easy sound emission technique.

Flute

A wind instrument made of brass, silver, gold, or wood. It falls into three categories:

a. A straight reed open on both sides, played using the bottle technique. Its structure is akin to the Hindustani Veṇu.

b. Similar to a whistle.

c. With a sound emission technique resembling type 'a', this is the most commonly used type today, featuring some mechanical components. The smaller, high-register versions are called 'Piccolo,' and those made of gold produce the sweetest timbre.

Ghadi

A metal plate, often made of bronze, resembling a gong. Originally used to mark the passing of hours, the term Ghaḍī could be interpreted as a clock. Today, it serves in religious functions and educational institutions, signaling the beginning and end of various lessons.

Ghanta

Ghanta is encountered in various forms and is commonly seen in temples and homes, where it serves to announce the arrival of a guest seeking an audience.

Gopiyantra

A folk instrument primarily used by traveling monks, it features a single string fixed on a key inserted between two sections of bamboo. These sections culminate in a frame, at the end of which a skin is placed, and the other end of the rope is inserted. As a monochord, it is primarily employed for rhythmic rather than melodic functions. Bending the two bamboo sections alters the tension of the string, thereby changing the frequency of the produced sound.

Mohan Veena

The traditional Middle Eastern instrument, imported from the Moors to Spain, has evolved through modifications to its current form. Notably, the term contains the particle 'tar,' meaning rope. This plucked instrument allows for changes in note frequencies by pressing fingers on the keys. Another version, the Hawaiian guitar, utilizes a metal body and facilitates the slide technique, making techniques like Gamaka more accessible. In recent decades, the Hawaiian guitar has become widely popular for accompaniment and, in some cases, takes on a soloist role. The Vishwa Mohan Bhatt Vīṇā is an interesting case, named after the builder and musician who adapted the structure of Sitār strings to the Hawaiian guitar.

Harp

An instrument with origins in the musical cultures of ancient Mediterranean peoples, such as the Egyptians and Greeks. Consisting of three wooden parts arranged in a triangle, it forms the structure for a series of parallel strings. Played while sitting and held between the knees, the strings of various thicknesses are plucked with both hands. The Indian version is known as Kātyāyana Vīṇā or Kānana.

Jagajhampa

A variation of percussion crafted from fired clay.

Jalatarang

Comprising a series of ceramic vessels of varying sizes, baked and filled with water, played with sticks. The amount of water and the size of each vessel alter the sound frequency, resulting in a sweet and melodious timbre. Presently, witnessing a performance of this instrument is a rare occurrence.

Jhamjiha or Jhamjhara

Jhamjiha or Jhamjhara. There are two types, one large and one small. In the first case, it is a cymbal suspended with a central string and struck by a beater. In the second case, two cymbals, one for each hand, are played by striking them together.

Kada

Kada is a percussion instrument with a body made of fired clay or wood, reminiscent of the kettledrum in Euroculture tradition. The skin is tensioned through leather laces and struck with a knocker. This tool finds use in military settings.

Kamsara or Kamsi

Kamsara or Kamsi is a type of gong, resembling the shape of a frame drum but entirely crafted from bronze. Alongside the shell and bells, it is essential for religious functions. Struck with a beater, it offers a variety of rhythmic possibilities.

Kanana

The origins of this instrument remain somewhat ambiguous; some attribute it to the Mediterranean, while others claim Indian roots. For proponents of the latter view, Kanana could be the 'hundred-stringed' Kātyāyanī Vīṇā mentioned in classical texts. Classified as a zither, this instrument features a soundbox with approximately forty strings. These strings are affixed on one side to the instrument's body and on the other to pegs similar to those on a piano, passing over small bridges. The strings can be either struck with a stick or plucked with the fingers. It is also known as Svaramaṇdala.

Karatala

Karatala is a compact variation of the Jhamjiha, made from bronze or brass, frequently employed to accompany the Khol in Kirtana.

Khanjani or Khanjari, or also Mandira

Similar to the Ḍafa but with a much higher frame, it is held in the left hand and struck with the palm of the right hand. Traveling artists use it to make bears or monkeys dance.

Kharatala

Two iron rods struck together, often utilized to accompany Bhajanas with solo instrument parts. Some virtuosos hold a pair in each hand.

Madala or Muraja

A common name for Mardala, this instrument has a wooden body and two skins of equal diameter, stretched by leather straps. Widely popular among the Sāṁotāla, it is used for auspicious occasions in Bengali villages. Occasionally, Gāba is applied to the left side. In the Śāstras, it is referred to as Mardala or Mṛdaṅga.

Mandolin

An instrument of European origin that belongs to the guitar group. Typically featuring four pairs of strings, each pair tuned to the same pitch, a fretted neck, and played with a plectrum. The back part of the oval-shaped soundbox is often constructed with a series of wooden strips. Resembling the lute or Oud, it likely has Middle Eastern origins.

Manjira

A pair of bells played simultaneously to maintain rhythm. They frequently accompany the Dhola in auspicious functions.

Khol

One of the oldest instruments in the Hindustani tradition, where the name reflects the material used, with 'Mṛd' indicating earth and 'Aṅga' meaning body. The two ends have different diameters, and the central part of the body remains the widest. Leather strings cover the instrument, pulling the two skins together. Also known as Khol, it is often used to accompany certain types of dance. Although the name refers to the construction material, even those made of wood are sometimes called Mṛdaṅga.

Nakada

A hemispherical terracotta percussion instrument adorned with feathers and struck with one or two sticks. Despite its 'military' history, it is currently employed during ceremonial occasions. The larger version, known as Maha Nakada, differs in shape, taking on a more conical form. It is often accompanied by the Tikara.

Oboe

Oboe is a double-reed wind instrument of European origin, typically made of ebony with metal mechanics. It holds a significant place within orchestras.

Organ

This instrument is employed in churches for liturgical purposes and in more modern contexts such as Jazz. There are both reed organs like the Harmonium or the dulcettina, and pipe organs, where the length and thickness of the pipes determine the note's frequency. The keyboard is akin to the piano, though some models feature a pedal board and keys for opening or closing harmonics.

Pakhawaj

Pakhawaj. Featuring a wooden body with skins on both ends, each with a different diameter. The Gāba is applied only on the right side, and a paste of water and flour is applied before playing. Wooden cylinders under the leather straps facilitate tuning the skins. The name, originating from Persian, means 'from which a low sound comes out.' It accompanies Dhrupada, Tāraparaṇa, and dance.

Piano

Piano, A principal instrument in the western tradition but impractical for Indian classical music, but perfect for experimentation on Raga Harmonization. Check this video.

Piccolo

Picoolo is a smaller version of the recorder, capable of covering very high registers, often used in orchestral compositions.

Rabab

Rabab is an instrument of Arab origin, likely invented by Abdu 'l-lāl of the village of Basud in Saudi Arabia over a thousand years ago. The soundbox is crafted from a single hollow piece of wood covered by a skin, upon which the bridge supports the six gut strings. The material used for the strings limits sound expansion, resulting in Ālāpa that often sounds distinct. A technique used in Tāraparaṇa involves striking the skin with the right hand or the handle with the left, known as Capaka, which has also been introduced into the Sarod. Few musicians play this instrument today.

Ramasimga

Ramasimga is an ancient instrument, often crafted from bronze or copper, characterized by an elongated S shape. While it once had military applications, today it is employed for religious or ceremonial purposes. Its shape and timbre significantly differentiate it from other Indian aerophones. The sound emission technique is the same as that used for the conch.

Shehnai

Similar to the shawm, it is fashioned from a single piece of wood worked on a lathe, featuring a pipe with a double reed on one end and a bell-shaped opening on the other. Typically accompanied by a small Tikara and another Shehnai that produces the drone while holding the tonic. This trio, known as Rośan Caukī or Nahabat, previously limited to religious or ceremonial functions, now holds a dignified place in Indian classical music, primarily due to the genius of Bismillah Khan of Varanasi. It is noteworthy that even today, at the entrances to temples in very Orthodox cities, the Rośan Caukī performs every three hours.

Shankh

Shankh is a conch shell, iconic in Hindu religious and ceremonial functions, also used for coded signaling. The part from which the spiral originates is cut to create the support through which sound is produced, with the opening sometimes adorned with gold or silver, as suggested in classical texts.

Sarangi

Sarangi is an ancient and revered instrument, crafted from a single hollowed-out piece of wood, featuring a soundboard made of leather to support the bridge. Traditionally, the four main strings are made of gut, while the eleven resonance strings are made of bronze. Though initially a folk instrument, it has evolved into one of the primary instruments for concert production, serving both as an accompaniment and a solo instrument. Some versions of this instrument boast a total of fifty-six strings.

Sarinda

Sarinda is an instrument featuring a very large case akin to that of the Esraj but less favored. The strings can be made from gut or horsehair. This is an ancient instrument, and its origins are challenging to trace.

Sarod

Highly similar to the Rabāb but distinguished by the presence of resonance strings known as Tarafha and rhythmic strings called Cikārī, along with a broad, less favored, metal neck. Numerous modifications in the nineteenth century enabled the Sarod to express itself in Ālāpa, Tāraparaṇa, and Gat compositions. Many techniques used in the Sarod are derived from the Rabāb.

Saxophone

An instrument of European origin, crafted from brass, capable of producing a sweeter timbre compared to other brass instruments in the Euroculture tradition. Unlike most brass instruments, it utilizes a single reed, similar to the clarinet, with a distinct mouthpiece and sound emission technique.

Shinga

Originally fashioned from buffalo horn, but predominantly found in metal today, Shinga is primarily used for coded messages and is played using the same technique as the conch.

Sitar

The Persian-origin term Sitar translates to 'three strings.'

In the Śāstras, reference is made to the Tritantrī Vīṇā or Kachapī Vīṇā. The lituum gained popularity between the thirteenth and fourteenth centuries, and later, Amīr Khusro coined the term Sitār. Over the centuries, while remaining a highly popular instrument, it has undergone various modifications and technological advancements, driven by the needs of musicians across different trends. The initial modification, adding two strings, was introduced by Masīd Khān, who also created the Masīdkhānī style—a standard for compositions with sustained tempo. The Rezākhānī style, associated with fast compositions, was another key contribution from him. The Gharānā itself introduced the Imdādḵẖānī style, a contemporary version of the Masīdkhānī. In 1930, rhythmic strings called Cikārī were incorporated, drawing inspiration from the Surabahār—an instrument akin to the Sitār but larger with a lower tone. With the addition of two more low strings in 1945, the Sitār overcame limitations in dealing with the Ālāpa, becoming a comprehensive instrument with the resonance strings called Tarafha. The neck is referred to as Dandī or Patarī, and the soundboard is known as Tablī. In 1925, a second gourd was added to the handle to amplify the sound for the performer.

Surbahar

According to tradition, this instrument was crafted by Gholām Mohammad Khān, a disciple of Piyār Khān and Omrāo Khān. Significantly larger than the Sitār, the Surabahār finds its application in both Dhrupada and Khayal, depending on the musician's proficiency. The distinctions between the Sitār and Surabahār include:

a. Dimensions

b. The Surabahar's capability to execute a seventh leap by pulling the string on a fret

c. Tone

d. Technique in Surabahār, which should resemble that of Vīṇā, involving the use of the index, middle, and little fingers of the right hand.

Suracain

Very akin to the Surabahār, the primary difference lies in the sounding board, which is crafted from a single hollowed piece of wood instead of a gourd. Additionally, the Suracain lacks Tarafh. A modified version of Sarod is also referred to as Suracain.

Surarabab

A modern Rabāb featuring a metal keyboard and strings. Similar to the Suraśṛṁgāra but with a leather soundboard.

Surshringar

Surshringar is an adaptation of the Rabāb, crafted under the supervision of Zafar Khān by an artisan from Benares. Unlike its predecessor, a gourd is employed for the soundbox instead of wood, the soundboard is crafted from wood rather than leather, and both the strings and fingerboard are made of metal. Rhythmic strings or Cikārī have also been incorporated. These alterations were implemented to extend the sound duration and enhance the melodious quality of the timbre. Regrettably, there are currently very few practitioners of this instrument across India.

Tabla

This percussion instrument holds the status of being the most prevalent throughout India. It accompanies various classical forms of Indian music, excluding Dhrupada and Ālāpa. Legend has it that the Pakhawaj was split in two, resulting in the archetype of what is now known as Tabla. The term specifically refers to the smaller piece with a wooden body, usually played with the right hand, while the other percussion is called Bāṁyā. Both skins are adorned with Gāba, tensioned by leather straps and wooden cylinders.

Tanpura

Tanpura holds a pivotal role in Indian classical music. By continuously stimulating the strings, tuned to the first on the fifth or fourth degree as needed, the second and third on the tonic, and the fourth on the tonic of the low register, it produces a drone—an ocean of harmonics within which the singer or musician harmonizes and finds any desired note. It belongs to the Ektārā family.

Taus

Derived from the Arabic term meaning 'peacock,' the Taus resembles the Esrāja but features a soundbox shaped like a peacock's head, with the legs and claws allowing the instrument to stand upright independently. It emerged around the mid-nineteenth century.

Tikara

Tikara is an instrument available in copper, wood, brass, or terracotta. It shares the same shape as the Kāḍā and is played by striking it with two sticks. It often serves as an accompaniment to the Shehnai.

Trombone

Trombone originating from Europe and crafted from brass, incorporates a telescopic component that enables sound modulation. The sound is produced using a technique akin to that of the conch. It forms an integral part of the wind section in orchestras.

Trumpet

Hailing from Europe and fashioned from brass, the trumpet is akin to the horn but presents a more challenging sound emission. It boasts a sweet and melodious timbre, with three pistons facilitating sound modulation, similar to the technique employed for the conch. A crucial instrument in orchestras, it often incorporates a mute on the final bell to control sound volume.

Tumdi

This wind instrument is partially made from a gourd and two bamboo reeds, each with a single reed. Tumdi is a folk instrument frequently utilized by snake charmers, it employs one bamboo cane for producing the drone and the other for the melody. The gourd, filling with air, aids in the circular breathing technique, ensuring a continuous sound even during the musician's inhalation.

Tysokodo

Imported from Japan, Tysokodo features keys resembling a typewriter that, when pressed, lock the string at a specific height, altering its frequency. While it briefly gained popularity in classical contexts, it is now predominantly used in folk settings. In the realm of Indian music, it is often referred to as Bulbul-Taraṅga.

Veena

Veena is a term encompassing all chordophones, which include various types featuring both gut and metal strings:

1. Ālāpinī
  2. Bharata
  3. Brahma
  4. Citra
  5. Dakshiṇī
  6. Ekatantrī
  7. Ghoṣavatī
  8. Hantikā
  9. Jayā
  10. Jyeṣṭhā
  11. Kachapī
  12. Kinnarī-(a)Bṛhatī, (b)Madhyamā, (c ) Lāghavī
  13. Kubjikā
  14. Kūrmikā
  15. Mahatī (present in northern India)
  16. Mattakokilā (Ekaviṁśatitantrī with twenty-two strings)
  17. Nādesvara
  18. Nakula (Dvitantrī with two strings)
  19. Nakuloṣṭhi
  20. Nāradīya
  21. Nihśaṅka
  22. Parivādinī
  23. Piṇākī (Dhanuyantra or bowed)
  24. Pona
  25. Prasāriṇī
  26. Rañjanī (which has a wooden soundboard that supports the bridge and a fingered neck as in the Sitār)
  27. Rāvaṇahantaka
  28. Rudra (Rabab)
  29. Śāradīya (Sarod)
  30. Sāraṅga (Sāraṅgī)
  31. Śatatantrī (probably Kānana)
  32. Ṣaṭkarṇa
  33. Śruti (Dvāviṁśatitantrī with twenty-two strings)
  34. Sura (Suraśṛṁgāra)
  35. Svara
  36. Trisvarī
  37. Tritantrī
  38. Tumburū (Tamburā)
  39. Udumbarī
  40. Vallakī
  41. Vicitra
  42. Vipañcī (Navatantrī with nine strings)

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The Veena used in northern India today differs significantly from other lutes. It features two large gourds attached to the neck, supporting both the keys and the bridge. There is no soundboard, and the two sounding boxes are not integrated into the handle. Additionally, the strings are arranged in decreasing thickness from the ground, contrary to other lutes.

The keys are immobile and fixed with wax, ensuring the presence of all semitones in the scale. Notably, there are three bridges: one for the main strings, one for the rhythm strings, and another for a free string serving as a drone, stimulated with the thumb when needed. The index finger and middle finger, equipped with a Mizrāb, are used, occasionally with the ring finger. The little finger is employed for the Cikārī.

Xylophone

Xylophone . Comprising bars of wood, metal, or glass of varying sizes placed parallel to each other, cut to produce different semitones. These bars are struck with two or four beaters and find use in orchestras. A modern variant with sound amplification and a unique vibratory timbre is known as a vibraphone.